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This primer is exactly that, a primer. The subject of camouflage colors, even for a country like the United States who's records were left pretty well intact after the war, has left much open to debate, and what IS known can fill volumes. (I know; I have 5 no …make that 6 books now…on the subject, yada yada yada…). If you have read Part One, then you have already experienced my sick humor and periodic interjections on the whole subject of: Conducting research, my own thoughts on the material presented, and what I COULD be doing with my time instead of looking at what amounts to very dry and boring reading material. The only less interesting stuff I have ever read were the top-secret documents I had to memorize while a Military Officer. (Ahh! the GLAMOUR of having a top secret clearance….learning the art of staying awake…. Oooppps, sorry about that, now I will have to eliminate you since I just spilled the top secret beans!) Just to keep this interesting, lets look at these "primers" as "works in progress". As I learn or discover more, I will modify the pages and parts to reflect the new knowledge, new technology that I can utilize, or the author's whim to make it a more interesting, and informative read. (Like adding more pictures, and drawings)
On the surface, the colors of the United States of America's fighting aircraft seem simple enough. Naval aircraft were in a bluish gray hue over a light brownish gray. … OK, OK, you already read this introduction stuff in Battle Colors: Part One, Winged Flight 1908-1941. The hyper-link has been given twice now, for you that have not read part one yet, this is called a HINT!!!! On to PART TWO of the Battle Colors series:
THE UNITED STATES NAVY: 1911-1942
When the United States Navy first decided to get into the aviation business, the first aircraft bore no markings at all. Just the tannish dope color that one would see on all aircraft of the period. To rectify this situation a blue anchor was painted on the tail, as the universally recognized insignia of nautical interests' worldwide. In May of 1917 through January of 1918, the Navy adopted the now famous star with the red ball on the blue background, however Allied pressures resulted in the navy adopting the regulation roundels in February of 1918. This would last for the rest of the First World War, and would give way again to the Star and ball in August of 1919.
Other recognition insignia upon doped cloth aircraft of the period had three horizontal stripes on the vertical stabilizer (That’s the tail for those not so insistent upon correct identification) Using the same dates as above, from May 1917 through January of 1918 these stripes were painted Blue-White-Red from front to back. During the roundel markings these were reversed to match all Allied aircraft and were Red-White-Blue.
After the retention in September of 1919 it also reverted back to the BWR combination and was utilized on naval aircraft in smaller and smaller numbers until 1941 when Naval commander's orders abolished them altogether.
The only exception to the rule that I have found in text was that of the US Coast Guard. Between the years of 1934 and 1941, the Coast Guard had placed a blue stripe on top of 5 red and white Stripes. 3 Red and 2 White. In 1926, the US Navy embarked upon what certainly were among, if not THE most colorful aircraft in the world, and can even be enough to make a hard core tactical modeler such as myself drool in anticipation of that first between the wars model. The fuselage of all ship borne aircraft were to be in silver or aluminum painted dope or paint with the undersides also painted in aluminum paint. The engine cowling was then to be painted in a section color, with the full cowling painted with the section color for the leader, the top half of the cowling for the second in section aircraft, and the bottom half of the cowling for the third in section aircraft. The section leader had a similarly colored strip painted in front of the tail, and behind the cockpit. Each aircraft had a similarly colored stripe painted like a chevron extending from the leading edge of the wing where the wing connected to the fuselage at appx. 45 degrees to the rear until it connected with the trailing edge of the wing. The top portion of the wings and the horizontal stabilizers (That's the tail wings to the rest of us neophytes) and extending to just over the leading edge of each surface underneath to avoid any disruption of the airflow due to differing paint conditions (That's a technical term…means nothing…really), were painted a chromium Orange Yellow. To further break it down, Aircraft carriers also painted the entire tail (Yes the tail planes too.) in a unique color that identified which aircraft carrier the aircraft hailed. With this system in place at a glance those with the need to know could identify the type, section, where in the section, squadron, and section number, and what aircraft carrier a certain aircraft flew. The following table is the colors used by the various naval squadrons. Also included are the FS 595 color call outs I BELIEVE to be correct. This is due to not having a reference that gives the information, but given the knowledge gained from research, the ANA standards issued in 1943 (approved in 1940) adopted most of the Navy's colors, and with a process of deduction, and a notation of 1933 Munsell color callouts, here are to the best of my knowledge the appropriate FS 595 designations.
| Section No. | Section color | Aircraft Number | Leader Stripe | Cowling Painted |
| 1 | Insignia Red | 1 | Yes | Full |
| FS 11136 | 2 | No | Top Half | |
| 3 | No | Bottom Half | ||
| 2 | White | 4 | Yes | Full |
| FS 17875 | 5 | No | Top Half | |
| 6 | No | Bottom Half | ||
| 3 | True Blue | 7 | Yes | Full |
| FS 15102 | 8 | No | Top Half | |
| 9 | No | Bottom Half | ||
| 4 | Black | 10 | Yes | Full |
| FS 17038 | 11 | No | Top Half | |
| 12 | No | Bottom Half | ||
| 5 | Willow Green | 13 | Yes | Full |
| FS 14187 | 14 | No | Top Half | |
| 15 | No | Bottom Half | ||
| 6 | Lemon Yellow | 16 | Yes | Full |
| FS 13655 | 17 | No | Top Half | |
| 18 | No | Bottom Half |
From March 15, 1937, the solid colored tails above were redesignated to determine which aircraft carrier a particular aircraft flew from. The aircraft carrier designations are as follows:
| USS Lexington | CV-2 | Lemon Yellow |
| USS Saratoga | CV-3 | White |
| USS Ranger | CV-4 | Willow Green |
| USS Yorktown | CV-5 | Insignia Red |
| USS Enterprise | CV-6 | True Blue |
| USS Wasp | CV-7 | Black |
So by 1940, the United States Navy had perhaps the most colorful aircraft in the entire world. A yellow orange upper wing surfaces of tactical aircraft with silver or light gray fuselages, silver doped painted fabric surfaces, and vertical and horizontal stabilizers painted in various colors denoting squadron, and unit affiliation, with a matching chevron on the wing to match. Such a system while colorful and useful for recruitment, lended little to the approaching tactical environment that the navy was soon called upon to participate. AUTHOR'S NOTE: Even though both the Army Air Corps, and the Navy utilized yellow for their wings, Red White and Blue for insignia, and for Tail decoration, even to the casual observer, they were distinctly different hues.
As the rest of the world was quickly either already engaged, or quickly being pushed into conflict, the United States Navy continued to paint their aircraft in these unusually bright hues. By 1940, it was obvious to just about everyone that SOMETHING was going to happen. The United States Naval brass finally took notice, and decided they needed to start looking to the lessons of Europe and start making the aircraft a little less noticeable. In February of 1940 a contract was let to Mr. McClelland Barclay. In what is now known as the Barclay schemes 2 TBD Devastators, 2 SBU Vindicators, 2 Brewster F2A Buffalos, and a 2 Northrup BT-1 Trainers, and a Vought O3U-3 from the Utility unit were used. The Barclay camouflage was a garish art deco nightmare (But would make a REALLY cool model subject) full of spectacular angles, waves, zig zags, swishes, and swirls. Most of the designs were trapezoidal in nature, and placed at oblique angles relative to the airplane surfaces. This was intended to break up the outline of the aircraft, and confuse the perspective from which it was being observed. (for all you Naval Aficionados, relax, the Army tried it's own version of this called Razzle in 1942) The colors recommended by Mr. Barclay were non-specular (flat) Gray, Silver Gray, Blue, and Green. The tests found that the non-camouflaged aircraft in silver were almost the right color to adapt to most surroundings, and while one color would blend in to the terrain of the area, it made the other colors of the concept stand out even more. Needless to mention this was a spectacular failure in concept, but it did provide one very important idea. Non-specular or flat finishes were desirable to the glossy, and matte finishes of the pre-war era aircraft. Also it was recommended that a flat of non-specular light gray be utilized until such time as a development of a camouflage scheme on all military assigned aircraft with the only contrasting colors being the national insignia. The Board's findings were endorsed by non other than Vice Admiral William Halsey. Halsey went further and recommended the elimination of the yellow wings, elimination of section markings and all other section or unit identification colors unless they could be viewed only at a distance of no more than 100 yards, utilizing war experience from Europe to determine the best number of aircraft for squadron size, and all aircraft being painted in the silver-aluminum lacquer then in use. Also on the recommendation chopping block were the colorful tails of the aircraft carriers, squadron insignia, and gunnery badges. (The E shown on many pre-war naval aircraft.)
These Recommendations went forward to CinCUS Commander in Chief, US Fleet Adm. James O. Richardson. Adm. Richardson considered these, and his report to the Bureau of Aeronautics was as follows:
The Naval Aircraft Factory continued to conduct tests using O3U, and SU type aircraft, and on February 12, 1940 concluded that non-specular green was superior to both dark blue, and dark gray. On April 22, 1940 it was recommended that non-specular pale gray gave the best deception of translucency on the underside of aircraft. It was also concluded that a darker shade be applied to the fuselage, and tail surfaces since these are the areas of greatest light reflectance. May 13, 1940, the Commander of Scouting force directed that no camouflaged aircraft could be used on Neutrality Patrol. As the orders were carried out, recommendations of gray versus green, versus blue-gray were beginning to show up. The Commander of Battleships stated in a report dated 6/25/41 that from above; the 2 SOC aircraft from USS MARYLAND were practically non-discernable, but clearly visible from below. It also commented on the lack of reflection of the aircraft being of great value.
Additional Testing was conducted by VT-5 from USS YORKTOWN. In the final report submitted in July of 1940, again the dark green was the preferred color, and non-specular aluminum was shown to not give any advantage over regular aluminum paint. The war drew ever nearer.
On December 30, 1940, the Bureau of Aeronautics issued instructions that:
February 26, 1941 brought another change. The patrol aircraft standard was extended to amphibian aircraft. The change however, did not specify where the demarcation line should be. To rectify the situation, the Commander of the scouting force issued further orders on May 7 that the dividing line should be the chine.
The Fleet Tactical Unit was directed to conduct tests then on temporary night camouflage with a report being issued on 6/30/41. The report stated that the tests revealed no satisfactory color was found that met the criteria of ease of removal or effect on permanent paint. (Authors note: As an Army Officer, I would just like to get in a quick dig here at my Naval brethren…Nothing like being on top of the situation guys. The Army Air corps already had a water based night coating 2 years before!!!) Despite numerous references to Naval aircraft being painted green at this time, the only reference found in all the references I have read, stated in a piece of broken Japanese code from the Philippines area dated 8/2/41, and they were only tracking down someone else's reference to it.
The Blue-Gray painting instructions were further modified on August 20, 1941 the Commander Aircraft, Battle Force, instructed that ALL carrier based aircraft in Aircraft, Battle Force be painted non-specular light gray, except for surfaces seen from above, which were to be painted non-specular blue-gray. A definite line of demarcation was to be avoided by means of feathering the line between the two, and aircraft such as the TBD-1 which had folding wings were to have the underside of the wings so exposed to visibility from above when folded be also painted in non-specular blue-gray. The order was further expanded on October 13, 1941 to include all fleet aircraft. On December 26, 1941, this order was extended to include all shore-based aircraft except training models at training centers, and reserve bases. These confusing and step by step incrementalism type orders were consolidated on February 6, 1942. It was now show time World War II had begun 2 months previously when Pearl Harbor had been attacked.
The Colors
| Federal Specification FS595A
1956 |
Federal Specification FS595B
July 1994 |
Color Name | Comments |
| FS11136 | FS11136 | Insignia Red | |
| FS12197 | FS12197 | International Orange | |
| FS13538 | FS13538 | Orange Yellow | |
| FS13655 | FS13655 | Lemon Yellow | |
| FS14087 | FS14088/34088 | Olive Drab | |
| FS14187 | FS14187 | Willow Green | |
| FS15042 | FS15042 | Sea Blue (Interim Blue-Gray?) | |
| FS15044 | FS15044 | Insignia Blue | |
| FS15102 | FS15102 | True Blue | |
| FS16081 | FS16081 | Engine Gray | |
| FS16473 | FS16473 | Light Gray | |
| FS17038 | FS17038 | Black | |
| FS17875 | FS17875 | Insignia White |
As a special to these 2 research articles, click here to see scans of all the colors referenced in the articles. Please realize however these are scans of the color chips, and are for the purpose of generalized color only. So far all efforts to accurately scan the color charts have failed. Also your computers settings for color will also play an important role in how each color looks on your screen. As I scanned these in as color photographs, the colors took on a duller and less brilliant hue, with some of the yellows completely losing their original tone, looking quite washed out. (as if weathered? Perhaps scaled down?) Also please realize while these colors are given in their correct format, designation and current FS number, they are not always correct matches. They are the CLOSEST match possible. I would like to thank Mr. Dana Bell at this moment for his very kind permission for the ability to include all observations (and a correction or two to the author) that were noted at the time of his research.
Reading the FS595B (July 1994)
(National Stock Number 7690-01-162-2210)
To ease the reading of these standards, all comparisons were used against the General Services Administration Form FS 595A fan deck dated 1959. (Yes the agency I happen to work for) I have in my possession the FS595B, dated July 1994. The difference is, according to Dana Bell, that when GSA went to the FS595B, some of the colors changed, but utilized the same numbers!!! When color matching please keep this in mind. If interested, the stock number for the current edition of the FS595B is 7690-01-162-2210. Most modellers relish this handy fan wheel of colors with their appropriate Federal Standard designation. While not as versatile as the Munsell system, it is regularly used by modeller and historical scholar alike to accurately describe a color. (Try explaining the color blue to someone sometime if you need to know what I mean) To ease the pain of reading these FS595 numbers, let me quickly explain how to use the "595".
FS stands for Federal Standard. The first number of the 5-digit code indicates the sheen of the color. In other words a 1 indicates a gloss paint or color, a 2 a semi-gloss or satin coat, and a 3 a drab or flat color or paint. The second color denotes the actual color group. 0- brown, 1- red, 2 - orange, 3 - yellow, 4 - green, 5 - blue, 6 - gray, 7 - miscellaneous, and 8 - fluorescent. The last three colors represent increasing diffuse reflectance. (The lower the number, the color gets darker, and changes color) so an FS16440 would be a glossy red of a fairly deep hue. Clear as mud in a FS30223 hue?
Color Analysis 101
When analyzing a sample, the recommended best sampling time as used by historians, amateur, and professional, and as developed by the Kodak Company is: 12 noon on a sunny day with out a lot of haze, and to do it outside. Artificial light does alter the perception, and the color matching process. Perhaps in the future, since I work with facilities as a day to day profession, I can lead a discussion or pursue artificial lighting recommendations in a research format per the ANSI/BOMA standard at a future time.
References/Bibliography:
The Official Monogram US Navy and Marine Corps Aircraft Color Guide, Vol. 2 John M. Elliott, Maj. USMC (Ret.) Monogram Aviation Publications, 1989 and 1998 2nd Edition.
Air Force Colors, Volume 1 1926-1942 Dana Bell Squadron/Signal Publishing 1995.
The Official Monogram US Army Air Service & Air Corps Aircraft Color Guide Vol. 1 1908-1941 Robert D. Archer, Monogram Aviation Publications 1995.
United States Navy Aircraft Since 1911, F.G. Swanborough and Peter M. Bowers Putnam Publishing 1976 2nd Revised Edition.
Douglas TBD-1 Devastator illustrations by Tom Tullis from the book: TBD Devastator Units of the US Navy, Barrett Tillman, Osprey Combat Aircraft Series Number 20, Osprey Publishing, 2000
