This primer is exactly that, a primer. The subject of camouflage colors, even for a country like the United States who's records were left pretty well intact after the war, has left much open to debate, and what IS known can fill volumes. (I know; I have 5 books on the subject, and they don't all agree with each other 100 percent of the time.), What is known and established, requires a Bachelor's degree in military speak and jargon to say the very least. Unless your idea of a fun way to pass a quiet evening at home is to pour over Mil. Specs, supplements, Tech manuals, and task orders, read on, and enjoy the fruits of the labors of others as I have, and offer a silent prayer to them for doing such a good deed for the rest of us. In order to keep the reader awake, and alert, I, your humble gatherer of information; the guy who has laid aside hours of valuable actual modeling time, forgone any other time that could otherwise be used in better pursuit of a perfect lawn, drinking massive quantities of adult beverages like a professional fighter jock, and engaging in any of the other professionally sanctioned piloty type activities known to exist, just to make sense of all these references, have inserted a certain amount of humor into this research article just to spice it up. Hope you enjoy my endeavors. 

On the surface, the colors of the United States of America's fighting aircraft seem simple enough. Army aircraft were a dark olive green over a darkish gray, while naval aircraft were in a bluish gray hue over a light brownish gray. While to the untrained eye, this is entirely correct, to the historian, and to the modeller this is but the entrance to a nether world from which the person seeking the information will never return quite the same. (There are rumors that at the last IPMS National convention a group of Glassy eyed completely naked modellers formed their own sect of the secret color police, and had boarded themselves into a room at the local Hotel the convention was located, and had used their own bodies as test cards for paint sample boards while howling strange chants that sounded suspiciously like Munsell color designations, and FS 595B codes.) All Kidding aside, like all the major warring nations of the Second World War, the United States had been experimenting with the ways that would best conceal aircraft that were operationally on a mission, or sitting in a shelter of some sort. 

Camouflage in its simplest terms means to keep from view, alter how a thing or object is viewed, or to fool the mind's eye into believing it not to be what it is. Many hours and countless dollars have been utilized in quest of the perfect scheme. 

Briefly the United States Military began to camouflage aircraft about the same time it ordered the procurement of its first aircraft for the signal corps in 1908. Testing however began in earnest in 1917 with Army Specification Nos. 24100, Doping of Fabric Surfaces, 24101 Decaling Insignia, 24102 National Insignia, and 24105 Markings for Airplanes. Doping served a twofold purpose. The first and primary reason to dope a fabric over an airframe was that it tended to ensure a proper tension or tautness of the fabric over the surface it covered ensuring a proper airfoil, and it provided a waterproofing that ensured that under adverse weather conditions the fabric would not absorb the moisture, making the airframe excessively heavy, or lose it's airfoil properties. 

Throughout the 1920s, and thirties, the military branches experimented continuously with various color combinations, types of paint and climates to achieve an optimum level of camouflage of aircraft both in flight and on the ground. Some of these schemes would be considered bizarre by today's standards, but were seriously contemplated 70 to eighty years ago. The principal idea was to break up the straight lines of aircraft in flight to make it difficult to see an aircraft from above when looking down, and if on the ground to find a color or colors that would blend into the sky most effectively. 

United States Army Air Corps 

Most of the colors were derived from the experimentation with water based coatings that could be brushed off fairly easily. These temporary camouflage schemes starting with the January 1921 Air Services Engineering Division's "Report on Camouflage of Day Airplanes" became the solid foundation for what lay ahead in the war. Possibly the best use of this study was the implementation of a sky color in order to conceal aircraft at altitude from observers on the ground. The testing revealed that aircraft so camouflaged would be hidden and blended with the sky at Angels10 (10,000 ft.) rather than at Angels 17. It was also recommended that all National insignia on the wings of camouflaged aircraft be eliminated. Another important experimentation was the use of shadow shading to eliminate, or at least fool the observer to the natural shadow produced by the wings and tail surfaces of the aircraft. In 1930, the replacement for the Air Services Engineering Division, the Materiel Division started testing aircraft with the water based temporary schemes for the use in field exercises. The first color tested was an Olive Drab that was applied to an observation aircraft. The commercial paints utilized were also a test bed to find durable paints that both served to protect the aircraft from observation, and from the destructive elements of nature. By 1932 suitable experimentation had been conducted to seriously utilize these colors in the field to determine what colors best camouflaged the aircraft from detection. A standardized set of colors were introduced, and stocked. The key word here in an era of extremely paltry budgets for military expenditures that made the Clinton Era Defense Budgets look huge, was flexibility, and versatility. If a color was deemed to be to dark or too light, just mix in some extra white or black and you could field alter the colors to match specific terrain the aircraft were operating in and around. The paint could easily be removed after operation with cold water, and a rag. (The author must at this point interject as a former U.S. Army Officer, that he does have a certain amount of sympathy for the enlisted personnel who would inevitably end up with the unenviable task of painting and washing these aircraft.) Certain colors of course were easier to wash out than others were. Purple and black were rather difficult, and a cleansing compound had to be used. The first test of these established colors in a simulated combat environment came in 1933. It was found that the average time to cover an airframe took 6 to 12 man hours, with the largest of airframes taking up to 25 man hours. The colors used were Olive Drab, Purple, and Dark Green. Purple while even today would be considered a valuable camouflage color was found to etch the metal, and discontinued until a suitable color could be manufactured that was safe. They are still looking. (The Author wonders that even if a suitable purple was found that some irate pilots would not have taken the offending chemical analysis, bribed all officials involved or threatened them with severe bodily harm, and destroyed it. Could you envision a Purple P-40 with tiger teeth!!??? Barney the B-17 Bomber? The mind boggles. Any IPMS members who dare discover this Holy Grail of purple will be immediately drummed out of the IPMS, and sentenced to build FROG kits out of the box with tube glue for the rest of their lives) While they were still looking for a suitable reformulation of the color purple (no not the movie…You can't reformulate Oprah, and Whoopie into actual actresses…no matter how you try…, the movie will still be a stinker) and available stock being reconsidered, neutral gray was introduced into the mix as a second best. In 1935, Neutral gray became the standard. 1938 GHQAF Maneuvers were the first widespread use of the waterbased colors, and Olive drab, Neutral grays, and blues were used most. According to Dana Bell's book from Squadron Publishing, This was also the first use of a standardized numbering system for the colors also. (I owe this guy a few rounds for really doing the homework!) 

Based upon a request in mid 1939, by General Arnold, the USAAC would begin to test formulations for the permanent camouflage coating to be placed on aircraft. In typical Army fashion, the request was ignored, and then justified by explaining the difficulties of applying paint to ALCAD, and duraluminum. Then came the excuses of the penalties induced into aircraft performance by the painting of the aircraft. General Arnold being a man of huge testicular fortitude, ignored those protestations by those who had ignored him, and directed the Army Materiel’s division to immediately begin tests, and furthermore directed who would conduct the tests. This resulted in the now famous photos of multihued aircraft such as P-36s in oranges, browns, blues, olives etc. Partial reports were submitted prior to the final complete analysis being completed. In July of 1941 the Study #42, the shadow Shading of Aircraft was finalized. "In 1940 the recommendation of Olive drab over Neutral gray had been completed. The separation of the colors was to be blended, not with sharp demarcations. The study also reintroduced insignia onto the flying surfaces of the aircraft and the concept of flat colors for the insignia to be placed upon all six stations of the aircraft.. It was also recommended that the Army should expect this same standard of camouflage from all aircraft manufacturers. The color utilized in this standard for olive was Dark Olive Green 41. It also stipulated the Stenciling of U.S. ARMY on the underside of all Army Air Corps Tactical Aircraft (after all, if you are trying to hide an aircraft from observation from the ground, advertising exactly what team your on is ALWAYS a good thing…"Hey Hans!!! Look at those letters flying through the air!!! Ja! That ist weird Franz!!!) In late September of 1940, tests had been conducted due to the complaints that the color faded rapidly under most conditions. This fading created colors that ranged from a buff or light brown to a violet green under high UV concentrations of the high altitude aerial warfare later over the European front, to a reddish pink under the hot desert sun of North Africa. Also in 1938, what would become the Arsenal of Democracy, the United States had already been supplying the warring factions around the world with military aircraft. It was quite familiar by 1941 with the British standard camouflage colors, and the US actually would incorporate a number of them into its inventory. In January of 1940, agreement was reached on a joint Army-Navy peacetime color standard. These became the ANA colors. Because the order held that present stocks of paint were to be used first, it was not until 1942/1943 that the ANA standards began to show themselves, and Camouflage colors did not come under ANA control until August of 1942. The camouflage colors themselves did not come directly under ANA specifications until August of 1942. To simplify this, the US Army , and US Army Air Corps were operating under the following Technical Orders, Specifications, and Bulletins: 

• Spec No. 24100 Doping Fabric Surfaces Change 2
• Spec No. 24102 National Insignia Change 2
• Spec No. 24105 Markings For Airplanes Change 7
• Spec No. 24112 Doping Polished Finish Change A
• Spec No. 24113 Color for Army Air Corps Airplanes
• Spec No. 24114 Camouflage Finishes for Aircraft Change 7
• Tech Order 07-1-1 Markings, Insignia & Camouflage Change A changes B and C rescinded
• Tech Order 01-1-3 Doping of Fabric
• A-N Porcelain Color Plates
• Bulletin 41 Colors for Camouflage Finishes

The Colors 

The following color chart is from Dana Bell's extremely informative Squadron/Signal Publications Air Force colors Volume 1, 1926-1942. (Authors Note, and thanks:  I received a incredibly nice e-mail from Dana Bell since this was first posted in the research section, and was very kind to lend permission, and a bit of guidance to me.  The table has been revised to reflect the FS595 edition differences, and Dana gave me, the humble author permission to include in total all published notes from the researchas published in the Squadron/Signal publications.  Dana I am buying, AND bringing the funny hats!!!! Thanks a Million!!!) 
 

Number	Color	Appx. Fed. Standard Equiv. (FS595A)   3/1/56	FS 595B  (July 1994)	Comments
1	Ivory Cream	13596/13594	13596/13594	Conflicting Source Information, Lighter - Yellower
2	Colonial Yellow	13596/13594	13596/13594	Conflicting Source Information, Darker - Redder
3	Buff	10371	10371	slightly lighter - stronger
4	Yellow	13432/13538	13432/13538	Conflicting Source Information, darker, yellower, weaker
5	Orange Yellow	11302/12197	11302/12197	Conflicting Source Information, little more orange, little lighter, little stronger
6	Light Green	34524	34524	lighter, yellower, a little stronger, glossy
7	Green	14090/14110	14090/14110	Conflicting Source Information, yellower and darker
8	Olive Green	34098/14087	34098	fairly good match
9	Bronze Green	14050	14050	a little darker, glossy
10	Light Gray	16357/13578	16357/13578	Conflicting Source Information, glossier, yellower, darker, stronger
11	Warm Gray	16555	16555	a little: glossier, yellower, darker, stronger
12	Blue Gray	36307/16376	36307/16376	Conflicting Source Information, glossy, darker, yellower
13	Dark Gray	36081	36081	glossy, stronger, browner
14	Pink	10371	10371	not a good match, #14 glossier, lighter, stronger
15	Flag Red	11105/11136	11105/11136	Conflicting Source Information, glossier, a bit lighter, stronger
16	Vermilion	11136	11136	glossier, darker, a little stonger
17	Metallic Red	20152/11136	20152/11136	Conflicting Source Information, glossy, a little darker, much stronger, yellower
18	Maroon	10076/10049	10076/10049	glossier, yellower, stronger, a bit lighter
19	Seal Brown	30108/10080	30108/10080	Conflicting source information glossier, stronger, lighter
20	Brown Primer	20122	20122	glossier, lighter, stonger, a bit redder
21	Warm Drab	26134	26134	glossier, a bit stronger, darker
22	Olive Drab	30118	30118/14088	conflicting sources, stronger, darker, a bit redder
23	Light Blue	35109/15193	35109/15193	conflicting sources, poor match, stronger, a little greener, a little lighter, glossy
24	Flag Blue	15044/15193	15044/15193	Conflicting Source Information, glossier, darker, a little stronger
25	White	37778 might be 37886 if not aged,	37778	might be 37886 if not aged,
26	Sand	30279	30279	slightly darker/pinker
27	Light Blue	35622/15102	35622/15102	Navy True Blue, darker and deeper blue than 35622
28	Sea Green	34128/14187	34128/14187	Navy Willow Green less yellow, greener
29	Dark Blue	None 1/2 way between 35109 & 35189	None 1/2 way between 35109 & 35189
30	Dark Green	34092	34092	slightly blacker
31	Dark Olive Drab	34087	34087	Good Match
32	Neutral Gray	36173	36173	very slighter darker, neutral in color
33	Black	37038	37038
34	Rust Brown	30117	30117	slightly darker
Colors	35-40	Are unknown
41	Dark Olive Drab	34087	34088	slightly redder
42	Medium Green	34092/34079	34092/34079	Conflicting Source Information, Good Match
43	Neutral Gray	36173	36173	Neutral in color
44	Black	37038	37038
45	Insignia Red	31136	31136	good match
46	Insignia White	37855/37875	37855/37875	Conflicting Source Information, possibly 37886 originally
47	Insignia Blue	35042/35044	35042/35044	lighter, bluer
48	Identification Yellow	33538	33538	darker, but same hue, not as dark as 13432
49	Sand	30279	30279	Added 10/1/42

  *Italicized information from USAAF Aircraft Markings and Camouflage 14941-1947 
by Robert and Victor Archer.  Your choice as to whom is correct...

Other Colors mentioned in this primer 
 

Water Paint Test of July 1930	FS595A Equiv.
Olive Drab	30118 slightly darker/greener
Color Samples Attached to report of 1/22/32
Olive Drab	30118 good match, slightly lighter, greener one sample close to 30266, slightly darker
Purple	37144 Royal Purple  Poor match, sample bluer, lighter more like a royal purple
Dark Green	34108 Good Match, some samples darker, some lighter, one sample close to 34128
Camouflage Report of 8/10/32
Olive Drab	34087 slightly greener
Purple	37144 poor match; richer and darker
Dark Green	14036 or 34036 sample is flat, redder

As a special to these 2 research articles, click here to see scans of all the colors referenced in the articles.  Please realize however these are scans of the color chips, and are for the purpose of generalized color only.  So far all efforts to accurately scan the color charts have failed.  Also your computers settings for color will also play an important role in how each color looks on your screen.  As I scanned these in as color photographs, the colors took on a duller and less brilliant hue, with some of the yellows completely losing their original tone, looking quite washed out.  (as if weathered?  Perhaps scaled down?)  Also please realize while these colors are given in their correct format, designation and current FS number, they are not always correct matches.  They are the CLOSEST match possible.  I would like to thank Mr. Dana Bell at this moment for his very kind permission for the ability to include all observations (and a correction or two to the author) that were noted at the time of his research. 

Reading the FS595B  (July 1994) 

(National Stock Number 7690-01-162-2210) 

To ease the reading of these standards, all comparisons were used against the General Services Administration Form FS 595A fan deck dated 1959. (Yes the agency I happen to work for) I have in my possession the FS595B, dated July 1994.  The difference is, according to Dana Bell, that when GSA went to the FS595B, some of the colors changed, but utilized the same numbers!!!  When color matching please keep this in mind.  If interested, the stock number for the current edition of the FS595B is 7690-01-162-2210. Most modellers relish this handy fan wheel of colors with their appropriate Federal Standard designation. While not as versatile as the Munsell system, it is regularly used by modeller and historical scholar alike to accurately describe a color. (Try explaining the color blue to someone sometime if you need to know what I mean) To ease the pain of reading these FS595 numbers, let me quickly explain how to use the "595". 

FS stands for Federal Standard. The first number of the 5-digit code indicates the sheen of the color. In other words a 1 indicates a gloss paint or color, a 2 a semi-gloss or satin coat, and a 3 a drab or flat color or paint. The second color denotes the actual color group. 0- brown, 1- red, 2 - orange, 3 - yellow, 4 - green, 5 - blue, 6 - gray, 7 - miscellaneous, and 8 - fluorescent. The last three colors represent increasing diffuse reflectance. (The lower the number, the color gets darker, and changes color) so an FS16440 would be a glossy red of a fairly deep hue. Clear as mud in a FS30223 hue? 

Color Analysis 101 

When analyzing a sample, the recommended best sampling time as used by historians, amateur, and professional, and as developed by the Kodak Company is: 12 noon on a sunny day with out a lot of haze, and to do it outside.  Artificial light does alter the perception, and the color matching process.  Perhaps in the future, since I work with facilities as a day to day profession, I can lead a discussion or pursue artificial lighting recommendations in a research format per the ANSI/BOMA standard at a future time. 

Posted changes to the research 

Change One to this article made August 13, 2001. 

1. Added complete analysis of colors with Dana Bell's Permission, added FS595B comparisons
2. Added link to scanned colors with precautions on computer scans, and added section on how to conduct color research analysis.

 References: 

Air Force Colors, Volume 1 1926-1942 Dana Bell Squadron/Signal Publishing 1995. 

The Official Monogram US Army Air Service & Air Corps Aircraft Color Guide Vol. 1 1908-1941 Robert D. Archer 

Monogram Aviation Publications 1995. 

USAAF Aircraft Markings and Camouflage 1941-1947, The History of USAAF Aircraft Markings, Insignia, Camouflage, and Colors Robert D. Archer, and Victor G. Archer Schiffer Publishing 1996. 

United States Military Aircraft Since 1909 F.G. Swanborough and Peter M. Bowers Putnam Publishing 1963 edition.